How to cite personal communications

Works without a source element so that they cannot be recovered by readers are considered “personal communications.”  These include emails, text messages, telephone conversations, live speeches, letters, personal interviews, and others.  Complete information on this topic is available in the APA Style Manual ((7th ed.), pp. 260-261.

General guidance:

• A personal communication citation should be used only when a recoverable source is not available.

• Personal communications should be cited within the text of the paper and not within the reference list.
• The two types of personal communications citations are:
  • Narrative citation: A narrative citation is given in the text of a sentence, enclosed in parentheses, and follows the name of the interview.  The parenthetical citation includes the type of communication and the date.  Example:  Bigfoot has been sighted many times in the area, according to I.I. Interviewee (personal communication, January 17, 2020).
  • Parenthetical citation:  A parenthetical citation is provides the source for information in the text of the paper.  The citation includes the initials and last name of the interviewee, the type of communication, and the date, all enclosed in parentheses.  Example:  Bigfoot has a distinct odor of peaches (I.I. Interviewee, personal communication, January 17, 2020) and was never reported during the winter months.
    • Interviewee’s initials, with each initial followed by

How to cite an interview

When citing a published interview, follow the format for the reference type.  The person being interviewed is not always listed as the author.  If the interviewee is not in the author element, try to integrate the name of the interviewee in the narrative of the text.

If the interview was conducted for the paper, the interview should be cited as a personal communication. 

How to cite audiovisual media

This category includes motion pictures, audio or television broadcasts, podcasts, recordings, and many other types of audiovisual media. It is also the category for static objects such as artwork, maps, and photographs.

References to audio-visual media must include the following elements:

• Author (primary contributor):
  • Last name
  • Comma
  • Initials, each followed by a period and a space.
  • If more than one author, follow the next-to-last author’s last initial with a period, a comma, a space, an ampersand, and a space. The last author’s name has a period and space after the last initial.
• Role of primary contributor: Enclose in parentheses and follow with a period and space.
• Date: Enclose in parentheses and follow with a period and space. The date may be written in a variety of formats, depending upon the type of citation.
• Title of work: Only the first letter of the first word is capitalized. For a two-part title, capitalize the first word of the second part of the title. Also, capitalize proper nouns. End with a space. Capitalize any proper nouns. Follow with a period and a space.
  • For a stand-alone work, the title will be italicized.
  • For a work that is part of a greater whole, the title will not be italicized.
• Publisher: The publisher is the source and may include more than one element, typeface style, and type of punctuation. Check the examples below for additional help.
  • For audiovisual media that is part of a greater whole, precede the publisher with the word “In” with a capital I and followed by a space for a visual production or the word “On” with a capital O and followed by a space for an audio musical work.
• URL

This template from the APA Style Manual (7th ed.), p. 341, can help identify the author for an audiovisual work:

Media type	Include as the author
Film	Director
TV series	Executive producer(s)
TV series episode	Writer and director of episode
Podcast	Host or executive producer
Podcast episode	Host of episode
Webinar	Instructor
Classical music album or song	Composer
Modern music album or song	Recording artist
Artwork	Artist
Online streaming video	Person or group who uploaded the video
Photograph	Photographer

This template from the APA Style Manual (7th ed.), p. 342, can help construct references for audiovisual media that stand alone:

Author	Date	Title	Publisher	URL
Director, D. D. (Director). Producer, P. P. (Executive Producer). Host, H. H Artist, A. A. Uploader, U. U.	(2020). (1989-present) (2013-2019) (2019, July 21)	Title of Work [Description].	Production Company Label Museum Name, Museum Location Department Name, University Name	https://xxxx

This template from the APA Style Manual (7th ed.), p. 342, can help construct references for audiovisual media that are part of a greater whole:

Author	Date	Title	Publisher	URL
Writer, W. W. & Director, D. D. (Director). Host, H. H Producer, P. P. (Producer). Composer, C. C. Artist, A. A.	(2020). (2020, March 26).	Title of episode (Season No., Episode No.) [Description]. Title of song. [Description].	In P.P. Producer (Executive Producer), Title of TV series. Production Company. In Title of podcast. Production Company. On Title of album. Label.	https://xxxx

More detailed information on citations for specific types of audiovisual media can be found in boxes below.

Films

• The director should be credited as the author of a film. If the director is unknown, a person in a similar role can be credited.

• The format is included in the square brackets. Other descriptive information may be included. For example, to specify a special edition of a DVD, the description might state [DVD; four-disc special extended edition]
• When a film title is in a different language than your paper, include a translation of the title in square brackets.

Examples:

Chaplin, C. (Director). (1936). Modern Times [DVD]. Warner Brothers.

Clifford, J., Dubiecki, D. (Producers), & Reitman, J. (Director). (2009). Up in the Air [Motion Picture].

TV series

Use a hyphen to separate the years of broadcast. Replace the last year with the word “present” if the series is still in production.

Example:

Kripke, E., McG, & Nutter, D. (Executive Producers). (2005-present). Supernatural [TV series]. Warner Bros. Television; Wonderland Sound and Vision. https://www.cwtv.com/shows/supernatural/

Television episode

• Authors: Include both the writer(s) and director(s), with the contributor’s role in parentheses after each contributor’s name.
• Include the season number and episode number in parentheses after the title.

Example

Duffer, M. (Writer & Director), & Duffer, R. (Writer & Director). (2019, July 4). Chapter Two: Mall Rats (Season 3, Episode 2) [TV series episode]. In M. Duffer, & R. Duffer (Executive Producers), Stranger Things. 21 Laps Entertainment; Monkey Massacre.

Radio

Radio series or episodes are cited in the same style as television.

Example

Koch, H. (Writer). Welles, O. (Director). (1938, October 30). The War of the Worlds [Radio broadcast] In J. Houseman (Producer), Mercury Theatre on the Air. CBS Radio.

Music album

Author for a musical recording:

• For a classical music recording:
  • List the composer as author
  • Following the title, note the individual or group who recorded this version in square brackets.
  • The publication date should be for the recording version in the citation.  Also, provide the year of the original composition in parentheses at the end of the reference.
• For all other recordings, the recording artist or group should be listed as the author.
• The description should be “Album” and be placed in brackets after the title of the song.  However, the wording can be adjusted is the version used included special tracks or some other features.  To including such wording, add a semicolon after “Album” and a space and before the second bracket.

Examples:

Bach, J. S. (2014). Bach: Works for Violin [Album recorded by Joshua Bell and Academy of St. Martin-in-the-Fields]. Sony Classical. (Original works published 1713-14)

Hudson, J. (2013). Jennifer Hudson [Album]. Sony Legacy.

Single song or track

Citation exceptions:

• Omit the album part of the citation if the song has no associated album.
• Include the URL only if that location is the only means of retrieval.
• Some recording artists perform under pseudonyms, which sometimes can be difficult to cite.  In such cases, spell out the entire name.

Lil Nas X, (2019). Old Town Road [Song]. On 7. Columbia.

Aldean, J. (2010). Fly Over States [Song]. On My Kinda Party.  BBR Music Group.

Podcast

• List the host as author.  If unavailable, list the executive producer(s).  Include the author’s role in parentheses.
• Specify the type of podcast in brackets (audio or video)
• Omit the URL if unknown

Example:

Goldman, A., & Vogt, P. J. (Hosts). (2014-present). Reply All [Audio podcast]. Gimlet Media. https://gimletmedia.com/shows/reply-all

Podcast episode

• List the host as the author, followed by the role in parentheses
• List the episode number in parentheses after the title.  Omit if episodes are not numbered.
• Specify in brackets whether the podcast is an audio or a video.
• Omit the URL if the URL is unknown.

Example

Andrews, J. (Host). (2020, May 20). Tía Isa wants a car (No. 5) [Audio podcast]. In Julie’s Library. Minnesota Public Radio; American Public Media. https://www.julieslibraryshow.org/

TED Talk

Author:

• For a TED Talk retrieved from the TED Talk website, use the speaker’s name as the author.
• For a TED Talk retrieved from YouTube, list the owner of the YouTube account as the author, which is TED.
• If the speaker’s name is not part of the author citation, try to integrate the speaker’s name into the narrative of the paper.

Examples

Cuddy, A. (2012). Your body language may shape who you are [Video]. TED conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/amy_cuddy_your_body_language_may_shape_who_you_are/up-next?language=en

TED. (2019, October 11). Johann Hari: This could be why you’re depressed or anxious [Video].  YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MB5IX-np5fE

Artwork in a museum or on a museum website

• Include a description of the medium or format in brackets after the title.  The title should be italicized.
• If the work is untitled, include a description in brackets in place of a title.
• Include the city, state (if applicable), and country after the museum.  Abbreviate the state but no the country.

Examples

Stuart, G. (1795). George Washington [Painting]. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, N.Y., United States.  http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/

Bourgeois, L. (1999) Maman [Sculpture]. Tate Modern, London, United Kingdom. https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/bourgeois-maman-t12625

Photo or other artwork not in a museum

Use this format to cite a photograph or other artwork not connected to a museum.

• Author: Use the artist’s name with the usual format for author, followed by a period and a space.
• Date: Enclose the date in parentheses:
  • Year in numerals
  • Month in letters (if given)
  • Date in numerals (if given)
  • Period and space after the closing parenthesis
• Title of work:  The title should be italicized.  If the work is untitled, include a description in brackets, followed by a period and a space.
• Type of artwork: Enclose in brackets, followed by a period and a space.
• Source: Use the name of the site from which the photograph was retrieved.
• URL

Example

Windsor, K. M. (2020, July 21). [Prince George the day before his 7^th birthday]. [Photograph] USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/celebrities/2020/07/21/prince-george-turns-7-duchess-kate-shares-new-snaps-young-royal/5472811002/

Map

Follow the template for a stand-alone visual work.  However, a dynamically created map, such as on Google Maps or Mapquest, does not have a title.  Instead, describe the map in brackets, and include a retrieval date.

Example:

Mapquest. (n.d.) [Mapquest directions for driving from Rapid City, S.D., to Minneapolis, Minn.]. Retrieved July 7, 2020, from https://www.mapquest.com/directions/from/us/sd/rapid-city/to/us/mn/minneapolis-282041826